North Americ The World For Its Excellent Professional Sports

Layne Greeson Introduction North America is known around the world for its excellent professional sports. Athletes from around the world come to the North America with the dream of becoming a professional athlete in their respective sport. Organized professional baseball in North America was developed in 1876 with the creation of the American League (AL). In 1901 the National League (NL) was formed in order to compete with the AL hence Major League Baseball (MLB) was born. From 1901 till now Major League Baseball has grown into a multi-billion dollar industry consisting of 30 MLB teams residing primarily in the United States with one team in Canada. The AL consists of 15 teams split into three separate divisions. The NL also consists of 15 teams split into three separate divisions. MLB teams compete in a 162 game season in order to determine which 10 teams, five from each league, will compete in an end of the season tournament and have a chance to win a World Series which is the most prestigious award an MLB t eam can accomplish. With this goal in mind MLB teams attempt to hire world class athletes in order to produce a winning team which in turn generates revenue. Baseball is statistical driven sport more than any other because the game is structured in a way that allows for easy comparison of players performance through the use of statistical aspects. Baseball teams pay athletes based on their statistical performance such as the number of homeruns they hit, the number of

South African Apartheid-Era Identity Numbers

The South African Identity Number of the 1970s and 80s enshrined the Apartheid era ideal of racial registration. It was brought in to effect by the 1950  Population Registration Act  which identified four different racial groups: White, Coloured, Bantu (Black) and others. Over the next two decades, the racial classification of both the Coloured and other groups were extended until by the early 80s there was a total of nine different racial groups being identified. Black Land Act Over the same period, the Apartheid government introduced legislation creating independent homelands for Blacks, effectively making them aliens in their own country. The initial legislation for this actually dated back to before the introduction of Apartheid—the 1913  Black (or Natives) Land Act, which had created reserves in the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal provinces. The Cape province was excluded because Blacks still had a limited franchise (entrenched in the South Africa Act which created the  Union) and which required a two-thirds majority in parliament to remove. Seven percent of the land area of South Africa was dedicated to roughly 67% of the population. With the 1951  Bantu Authorities Act  the Apartheid government lead the way for the establishment of territorial authorities in the reserves. The 1963  Transkei Constitution Act  gave the first of the reserves self-government, and with the 1970  Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act  and 1971  Bantu Homelands Constitution Act  the process was finally legalised. QwaQwa was proclaimed the second self-governing territory in 1974 and two years later, through the Republic of Transkei Constitution Act, the first of the homelands became independent. Racial Categories By the early 80s, through the creation of independent homelands (or  Bantustans), Blacks were no longer considered true citizens of the Republic. The remaining citizens of South Africa were classified according to eight categories: White, Cape Colored, Malay, Griqua, Chinese, Indian, Other Asian, and Other Colored. The South African Identity Number was 13 digits long. The first six digits gave the birth date of the holder (year, month, and date). The next four digits acted as a serial number to distinguish people born on the same day, and to differentiate between the sexes: digits 0000 to 4999 were for females, 5000 to 9999 for males. The eleventh digit indicated whether the holder was ​an SA citizen (0) or not (1)—the latter for foreigners who had rights of residency. The penultimate digit recorded race, according to the above list—from Whites (0) to Other Coloured (7). The final digit of the ID number was an arithmetical control (like the last digit on ISBN numbers). Post-Apartheid The racial criteria for identity numbers was removed by the 1986  Identification Act  (which also repealed the 1952  Blacks (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act, otherwise known as the Pass Law) whilst the 1986  Restoration of South African Citizenship Act  returned citizenship rights to its Black population.

Insanity Vs Insanity - 785 Words

Madness and insanity is always perceived and viewed through the eyes of the sane, we can only differentiate between insanity and sanity by first defining what is sane and what isnt. Emily Dickinson’s quote about how â€Å"Much madness is divinest sense--To a discerning Eye† directly claims that what we might consider to be madness is actually a form of sanity. Someone with a â€Å"discerning eye† has a shrewd view and so they will obviously believe that whoever does not behave or act as they do is insane. Within As I Lay Dying, we see exactly that with the character of Darl. Darl is the second oldest child of the Bundren family and throughout the novel when he is narrating we see that he has the ability to be clairvoyant, which may have lead to†¦show more content†¦Darl doesnt think that what he did was insane, but rather an act of compassion because he doesnt want to see his mother being paraded around anymore. It’s very ironic that Darl is the one that goes mad and is sent to the mental asylum at the end of the novel because he was the most intelligent and clairvoyant of all the family members. The consequences of Darl’s philosophical nature is his alienation from the community around him and because he seems to be the one that knows all the family members secrets, that leads to others around him to accept him getting committed and not even attempt to help him. In Darl’s last narration in the novel he switches back between first person and third person which may represent his inability to feel the same way as his family members about their journey and their mothers last wish. He tried to endure the journey but as he discovers the true motives of his family members, especially Anse, he can’t help but feel it is his duty to end it. Darl is a rather tragic character. Not only did he have to take partShow MoreRelatedInsanity Vs Insanity1249 Words   |  5 PagesMadness and insanity are always perceived and viewed through the eyes of the sane; we can only differentiate between insanity and sanity by first defining what is considered sane and what isnt. Emily Dickinson’s quote that â€Å"Much madness is divinest sense--To a discerning Eye† directly claims that what we might consider to be madness is actually a form of sanity. We for instance all have a â€Å"discerning eye† which creates a shrewd view because we all believe that whoever does not behave or act accordingRead MoreCatch 22- Insanity vs. Sanity1665 Words   |  7 PagesCatch-22 Insanity vs. Sanity Imagine being stuck in a box with absolutely no way out. Everyday becomes another struggle to escape only to find that you are being controlled and confined for no apparent reason. One would eventually let reality slip through their hands and welcome insanity into their empty minds. This is the life of the men in the novel Catch-22, by Joseph Heller. Catch-22 introduces a world were sanity and insanity have switch places, were the logical man is pronounced crazyRead MoreEssay on hamlet: sanity vs insanity842 Words   |  4 Pagesand starts actually being crazy?†. In Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the way others interpret Hamlet’s behavior is different from the way Hamlet views himself. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Hamlet is in a situation where his sanity is turning into insanity. He is like one of those people who tell so many lies that they start believing their own lies. Hamlet’s acting is so vivid to him that, unconsciously, his state of mind has become irrational. He is turning against everyone in order to follow theRead MoreHamlet: Sanity vs Insanity Essay878 Words   |  4 Pagespoint the stops pretending and starts actually being crazy?. In Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the way others interpret Hamlets behavior is different from the way Hamlet views himself. 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Insanity â€Å"Hamlet represents the mid period of the growth of Shakespeare s genius, when comedy and history ceased to be adequate for the expression of his deeper thoughts and sadder feelings about life, and when he was entering upon his great series of tragic writings† (The World s Best Essays from the Earliest Period to the Present Time). Hamlet’s actions are entirely too extreme for him to be faking his insanity. Hamlet is constantly on the brink of insanity, or so it seemsRead More The Insanity Defense Essay1269 Words   |  6 PagesThe Insanity Defense Former U.S president Ronald Reagan was shot by a man named John Hinckley in the year 1981. The president along with many of his entourage survived the shooting despite the heavy infliction of internal and external injuries. The Hinckley case is a classic example of the not guilty by reason of insanity case (NGRI). The criminal justice system under which all men and women are tried holds a concept called mens rea, a Latin phrase that means state of mind. AccordingRead MoreThe Mentally Ill1679 Words   |  7 Pages Throughout history, human societies have had conflicting views on insanity and how it is defined in life. Primitive cultures found peace within shamans and witch doctors because they believed the insane were possessed by evil spirits. From then on, in Roman and Greek cultures, there was a somewhat progressive ideology that mental illness came from biological and emotional ailments. They believed in treating those with mental disorders humanely and respectfully which is an attitude that has beenRead MoreThe Argument Of The Insanity Defense1429 Words   |  6 PagesThe insanity defense has been a controversial issue among many individuals and legal experts. Whether or not an individual s current mental state can get in the way of their ability to differentiate right from wrong at the time of a committed crime has been a discussion of great debate among society. Although it is rarely used in criminal proceedings its credibility is still questioned by many people. People who believe th at the insanity defense should be abolished argue that the individual committedRead MoreDracula: Barrier of Sanity vs. Insanity Essay1738 Words   |  7 Pagesirregular and unstable behaviours as well. These characters must go through their own forms of insanity to access the entirety of the truth that Dracula brings upon them, and thus they behave in ways similar to what is considered to be insane. The alternative reality Dracula brings into the logical and civilized London society can only be accessed by the characters through their own forms of insanity. Insanity is a psychological state of the mind being deranged and arousing irregular thoughts or actions

Pa 581 Final Exam Government Budget and Finance 100%...

PA 581 Final Exam Government Budget and Finance 100% Correct Keller PLEASE DOWNLOAD HERE! http://www.studentswithsolutions.com/view-tutorial.aspx?TutorialId=2110 Page 1: 1. (TCO A) One of our lectures discusses the budget execution stage of the budget cycle. Please identify and explain each of the major steps in the budget execution process. (Points : 25) 2. (TCO D) Property taxes receive a number of complaints from some taxpayers and many politicians. Please identify at least three of these complaints, and discuss them in detail. Refer to standards such as vertical equity, horizontal equity, and regressiveness as you discuss these complaints. (Points : 25) 3. (TCO C) Quarterly allotments for the appropriation to the State†¦show more content†¦Why or why not? Be very specific, using numbers in your answer.  · In principle, could Bev, the major beneficiary, financially cut deals with Al and/or Chris so as to ENSURE that they would vote for the project? Using only the numbers given in the project statement as your starting data, specify how this could be done. (Points : 25) 4. (TCO H) List the steps in the capital budget process and explain each of them. (Points : 25) 5. (TCO I) Below is a table showing the income of individuals A and B together with their food and clothing purchases in an untaxed environment (NOTE: K = 1000). Individual Income Food Clothing A $20,000 $5,000 $2,000 B $50,000 $8,000 $8,000 Before even considering any particular numbers, define precisely what is meant when we say that a tax system is regressive. Do the same for what is meant by progressive. Suppose a general sales tax of 5% is applied to all purchases, and purchasing behavior does not change as a result. In consideration of the sum total of ALL sales taxes paid, illustrate why this tax system is regressive. SHOW ALL WORK IN A SYSTEMATIC FRAMEWORK TO EARN MAXIMUM POINTS. Hint: Develop a calculation table for analysis. There is a proposal on the government table to exempt EITHER food OR clothing from the sales tax base. The purpose of this proposal is to seek progressivity rather than regressivity in the sales tax system. Provide a reasoned recommendation supported by calculations as to whichShow MoreRelatedProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesCLIFFORD F. GRAY is professor emeritus of management at the College of Business, Oregon State University. He continues to teach undergraduate and graduate project management courses overseas and in the United States; he has personally taught more than 100 executive development seminars and workshops. His research and consulting interests have been divided equally between operations management and project management; he has published numerous articles in these areas, plus a text on project managementRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesIncident 1 Long Hours, Hundreds of E-Mails, and No Sleep: Does This Sound Like a Satisfying Job? 90 Case Incident 2 Crafting a Better Job 91 4 Emotions and Moods 97 What Are Emotions and Moods? 98 The Basic Emotions 100 †¢ The Basic Moods: Positive and Negative Affect 100 †¢ The Function of Emotions 102 †¢ Sources of Emotions and Moods 103 Emotional Labor 108 Affective Events Theory 110 Emotional Intelligence 112 The Case for EI 113 †¢ The Case Against EI 114 †¢ Emotion Regulation 115 OB Applications

Fine Arts Budget Cuts Essay Example For Students

Fine Arts Budget Cuts Essay Theses budget cost will force students and teachers to attend new reduced programs at their schools. The cuts themselves are believed to be a symptom of a much argue problem- having genuine higher education still exists in our colleges today, Higher education is becoming streamlined to fit into the demands of the economy, either in terms of conducting basic research that can be exploited for financial gain or by producing competent employees and managers to fill vat positions the economy can still provide. Surprisingly, private school art programs are experiencing the worst of the budget cuts. The percentage of private schools dropping their fine arts program is nearly double the amount Of private schools. This article focuses on thirty six connected Arts campuses in the United States that are struggling against keeping their fine arts program alive. It explains how one campus in particular is working tremendously hard to keep their academic programs, which is fine arts, alive at all costs. The campus is currently freezing all faculty staff members salary so that they will not have to result to laying-off any of their employees or start cutting any of their lesser taken classes or programs, With the hard and tremendous work that this art community campus is doing, with a little help off microscopic amount of raised action of four percent, it is obvious that this school is going to make it through the harsh economy struggles that we are facing today. The school even worked Taylor 2 to raise their financial aid double, to about eight percent, the amount of what their newly increased tuition amounted up to. That way their college keep the amount of students they had before this recession crisis. The extra aid this college is receiving will allow absolutely no budget cuts of any kind towards their college fine art program. Due to all of their efforts there will be no changes what o ever of the quality of the program, and there will not be any decrease in the type of programs the college has to offer the students to take. Clark, Steve. Art of survival: New museum strives to remain open despite budget cuts. Brownsville Herald, The (TX) 15 Mar. 2011: Newspaper source. OBESE. Web. 17 May 2011. An arts museum in Brownsville, Texas struggles to keep open due to the economic crisis. Governor Rick Perrys proposal to suspend funding for the Texas Commission on the arts was not welcoming news to Marcela Hindmost, Who is the executive director of Brownsville Museum of Fine Arts. Sadly, the BEMA has not received any money from the last commission. Perry suggest to axle the arts, which would mean that the arts would potentially lose one source of a grant that they were used to having towards their museum every year. The Fans share has dropped from two-hundred and nineteen thousand to fifty thousand dollars a year. The MFC declares, were running it as tight as we could possibly run this, says Rafael Vela, a BUMP board member. There is nothing else to cut. Were on a shoestring budget and it is a skeleton crew 12 months out of the year right now, every dab/ (par 6). Money really does matter at a time like this. The BAA is managing to make interest payment just under forty thousand dollars a year even With the fact that they still owe the bank a whopping six hundred thousand dollar fee. Sadly, the city of Brownsville just opened a new building for their towns console which was paid from a grant from the Brownsville government that came out to a grand total of one point four million dollars out of the total of three point million dollar plan. .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .postImageUrl , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:hover , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:visited , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:active { border:0!important; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:active , .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66 .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5e8d55a6bf7922b27e7a71a25b016d66:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Iona Moon EssayIt is depressing that the city can spend that much on a new building, which was not even a necessity, when there is so much need elf in the Fine Arts part of their city. After a lot of hard work on the museums part the government now understands their financial status and they are working hard, even though it is not this minute, to create a plan that can hopefully save the museum in the future. Oppenheim, Steve. SPREADING THE WORD. Music Education Technology 4. 1 (2006): 6. Masterful Premier. Web. 7 May 2011, Readers of MET, the magazine, are painfully aware that many art programs throughout our country schools are struggling to survive. When your program i s facing cutbacks, it is tempting for a person to fight only your immediate battles, and of courses, those battles must be won. It is important for educators nationwide to share their concerns towards the economic crisis. It is important for the schools to battle their fights alone, because they are only skilled at networking and at sharing their educational ideas- which is a good thing. These skills need to be leveraged to help strengthen the case to administrators and the public at large about how important obtaining funding for the arts education really is. As the article points out, must all hang together or surely we Will hang separately (Para). This is a famous quote from Ben Franklin and believe that it describes the economic situation and the general point of this article. Teachers within a school district should share information and ideas for enlightening their administrations and communities about the importance of the arts education. To get the point across effectively, educators throughout a district or even a state need to joining forces to apply grants, to promote music education and even go above and beyond and do more. Uniting educators and networking music programs is a great beginning. However, music educators need to seek out the common cause of all discipline in the fine arts department toward finance as well, As the article states, We can only gain by hanging together (par 4). Totes, Arians WELCOME. Strap 122. 1452 (2011): S. Academic Search Complete. Web. 7 May 2011, Even though an economic crisis is being held worldwide, the latest cuts for fine arts are taking place in the United States and the United Kingdom, The article is written to give motivation to teachers throughout the United States and United kingdom to actively work in their communities to save music. It would not be the best session for teachers to stand around and just watch as younger generations lose their music enlightened-future (pa r 3). However, those who seek a job, like myself, in the music world are sadly going to experience the worse of this economic crisis budget cuts. Even the legendary concert master violinist Robert Friend argues that colleges and conservatories are taking in and accepting too many incoming freshman. When schools Start to do this, it Will limit the chance Of even half of them not being able to find a job. At this point is just comes down to whoever is the best Of the best gets the job. Even With professional performing gig spots limits it to really if you are willing to move in the middle of nowhere then maybe you Will get the job. For example, if you are a clarinetist in college and you are looking to try out for a professional orchestra because it is your dream job and what you have been training for the last four years, you options are really limited. An orchestra clarinet position, one that actually pays a decent salary, opens once one clarinetist decides to retire so about every sixty years. And there are probably only thirty decent orchestras around the world and no sees then fifteen great orchestras in the United States. These times for musicians are tough and we are desperate to find a solution and keep our passion of music alive. .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .postImageUrl , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:hover , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:visited , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:active { border:0!important; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:active , .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3 .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5ef2ad1dbfa23cec33f310129733d4b3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Why I'm Becoming a Drum Major EssayIt is such shame that musicians cannot find a break in this economy, but it will at least go down in history that we gave a fight and finally did something. Bach, Mozart and Brahms we all great composers and, yes, went down in history for writing music, but we will down in history for saving music, the thing that we care about most in our lives. Taylor 2 University of Texas to Research Texas School Music Education. American Music Teacher 55. 1 Academic search complete. OBESE. Web. 17 May 2011. Sadly Scott, the maker of Music International, had to sign a deal with the Hal Lenore Corporation. Due to the recession Music International cannot keep their family owned and seed down for many-generation Company. Music International is a comprehensive music catalog and magazine that is distributed mainly in Germany. This company goes back to publishing Beethoven and Bach back when they were famous composers in the Baroque and Classical Eras. Today they can boast about having over forty thousand catalogs With over forty thousand publications. This includes everything from performance pieces, teaching materials, reroute materials, concert masterpieces, contemporary concert pieces and operas. They also make special books, magazines and multimedia items. It is now up to the Hal Lenore Corporation to keep what the company has done for so many years alive. Luckily for us, Schists products Will now be sold in the United States and South America. The article then jumps to the research that the university of North Texas is doing, Their research topic is to find out whether or not the Texas school children have to quality educated music programs. Bruce Orr helped to found the program Texas Music project. This is a non-profit organization made to help the music education programs in schools across Texas. The University of Texas used his survey in their research. His surveys purpose was to explain how music education was being affected by a lack of funding and an increased focus on standardized testing (par 6), Sadly, music participation has dropped forty-six point five percent within the last five years. As state legislators struggle to develop a sturdy finance program, music educators become increasingly overdid about staffing and budget cuts.

Photography Essay Example For Students

Photography Essay Photography is a technique of producing permanent images on sensitized surfaces by means of the photochemical action of light or other forms of radiant energy. In todays society, photography plays important roles as an information medium, as a tool in science and technology, and as an art form, and it is also a popular hobby. It is essential at every level of business and industry, being used in advertising, documentation, photojournalism, and many other ways. Scientific research, ranging from the study of outer space to the study of the world of subatomic particles, relies heavily on photography as a tool. In the 19th century, photography was the domain of a few professionals because it required large cameras and glass photographic plates. During the first decades of the 20th century, however, with the introduction of roll film and the box camera, it came within the reach of the public as a whole. Today the industry offers amateur and professional photographers a large variety of cameras and accessories. See also Motion Picture. The Camera and Its AccessoriesModern cameras operate on the basic principle of the camera obscura (see Historical Development, below). Light passing through a tiny hole, or aperture, into an otherwise lightproof box casts an image on the surface opposite the aperture. The addition of a lens sharpens the image, and film makes possible a fixed, reproducible image. The camera is the mechanism by which film can be exposed in a controlled manner. Although they differ in structural details, modern cameras consist of four basic components: body, shutter, diaphragm, and lens. Located in the body is a lightproof chamber in which film is held and exposed. Also in the body, located opposite the film and behind the lens, are the diaphragm and shutter. The lens, which is affixed to the front of the body, is actually a grouping of optical glass lenses. Housed in a metal ring or cylinder, it allows the photographer to focus an image on the film. The lens may be fixed in place or set in a movable mo unt. Objects located at various distances from the camera can be brought into sharp focus by adjusting the distance between the lens and the film. The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in conjunction with the shutter to admit light into the lighttight chamber. This opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it may be adjustable. Adjustable diaphragms are composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic that, when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens; when meshed together, they form a small opening behind the center of the lens. The aperture openings correspond to numerical settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens. The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the camera except during the interval of exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older amateur cameras use a drop-blade shutter, consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls across the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a second. In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover the full lens aperture and then springs shut. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a variable-size slit across its width. When released, the shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it progressively as the slit moves. Most modern cameras also have some sort of viewing system or viewfinder to enable the photographer to see, through the lens of the camera, the scene being photographed. Single-lens reflex cameras all incorporate this design feature, and almost all general-use cameras have some form of focusing system as well as a film-advance mechanism. Camera DesignsCameras come in a variety of configurations and sizes. The first cameras, pinhole cameras, had no lens. The flow of light was controlled simply by blocking the pinhole. The first camera in general use, the box camera, consists of a wooden or plastic box with a simple lens and a drop-blade shutter at one end and a holder for roll film at the other. The box camera is equipped with a simple viewfinder that shows the extent of the picture area. Some models have, in addition, one or two diaphragm apertures and a simple focusing device. The view camera, used primarily by professionals, is the camera closest in design to early cameras that is still in widespread use. Despite the unique capability of the view camera, however, other camera types, because of their greater versatility, are more commonly used by both amateurs and professionals. Chief among these are the single- lens reflex (SLR), twin-lens reflex (TLR), and rangefinder. Most SLR and rangefinder cameras use the 35-millimeter film format, while most TLR as well as some SLR and rangefinder cameras use medium-format filmthat is, size 120 or 220. View CamerasView cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and are most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use large-format films that produce either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and sharpness than smaller format film. View cameras have a metal or wood base with a geared track on which two metal standards ride, one in front and one in back, connected by a bellows. The front standard contains the lens and shutter; the rear holds a framed ground-glass panel, in front of which the film holder is inserted. The body configuration of the view camera, unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is adjustable. The front and rear standards can be shifted, tilted, raised, or swung, allowing the photographer excellent control of perspective and focus. Rangefinder CamerasRangefinder cameras have a viewfinder through which the photographer sees and frames the subject or scene. The viewfinder does not, however, show the scene through the lens but instead closely approximates what the lens would record. This situation, in which the point of view of the lens does not match that of the viewfinder, results in what is known as parallax. At longer distances, the effects of parallax are negligible. At short distances, however, they become more pronounced, making it difficult for the photographer to frame a scene or subject with certainty. Reflex CamerasReflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped with mirrors that reflect in the viewfinder the scene to be photographed. The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder consisting of a horizontal ground-glass screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted vertically on the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking photographs and the other for viewing. The lenses are coupled, so that focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror mounted at a 45-degree angle. The photographer focuses the camera and adjusts the composition while looking at the screen. The image formed by the lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like rangefinder cameras, TLRs are subject to parallax. In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both viewing the scene and taking the photograph. A hinged mirror situated between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the lens through a five-sided prism and onto a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At the moment the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror out of the path between lens and film. Because of the prism, the image recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the camera lens sees, without any parallax effects. Most SLRs are precision instruments equipped with focal-plane shutters. Many have automatic exposure-control features and built-in light meters. Most modern SLRs have electronically triggered shutters. Apertures, too, may be electronically actuated or they may be adjusted manually. Increasingly, camera manufacturers produce SLRs with automatic focusing, an innovation originally reserved for amateur cameras. Minoltas Maxxum series, Canons EOS series, and Nikons advanced professional camera, the F-4, all have autofocus capability and are completely electronic. Central processing units (CPUs) control the electronic functions in these cameras (see Microprocessor). Minoltas Maxxum 7000i has software cards that, when inserted in a slot on the side of the camera, expand the cameras capabilities (see Computer). Autofocus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample automatically the distance between camera and subject and to determine the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an infrared light beam or ultrasonic (sonar) waves off the subject to determine distance and set the focus. Some cameras, including Canons EOS and Nikons SLRs, use passive autofocus systems. Instead of emitting waves or beams, these cameras automatically adjust the focus of the lens until sensors detect the area of maximum contrast in a rectangular target at the center of the focusing screen. Design ComparisonsOf the three most widely used designs, the SLR is the most popular among both professionals and amateurs. Its greatest advantage is that the image seen through the viewfinder is virtually identical with that on which the lens is focused. In addition, the SLR is generally easy and fast to operate and comes with a greater variety of interchangeable lenses and accessories than the other two camera types. Business ethics EssayThe quality of computer-generated images was, until recently, inferior to strictly photographic images. Most nonindustrial color printers and laser printers cannot yet produce images with the tonal range, resolution, and saturation of photographs. Some systems, however, such as Presentation Technologies Montage Slidewriter and the Linotronic system, are capable of producing magazine-quality images. Special TechniquesBy the end of the 19th century, photography was already playing an important specialized role in astronomy. Since that time, many special photographic techniques have been developed. They serve as important tools in a number of scientific and technological areas. High-Speed Photography and CinematographyMost modern cameras allow exposures with shutter speeds of up to 1/1000 second. Shorter exposure times can be attained by illuminating the object with a short light flash. In 1931 American engineer Harold E. Edgerton developed an electronic strobe light with which he produced flashes of 1/500,000 second, enabling him to photograph a bullet in flight. By the use of a series of flashes, the progressive stages of objects in motion, such as a flying bird, can be recorded on the same piece of film. Synchronization of the flash and the moving object is achieved by using a photocell to trigger the strobe light. The photocell is set up so that it is illuminated by a beam of light that is interrupted by the fast- moving object as soon as the object comes into the field of the camera. More recently, high-speed electro-optical and magneto-optical shutters have been developed that allow exposure times of up to a few billionths of a second. Both types of shutters make use of the fact that the polarization plane of polarized light in certain materials is rotated under the influence of an electric or magnetic field. The magneto- optical shutter is made up of a glass cylinder that is placed inside a coil. A polarization filter is placed at each side of the glass cylinder. Both filters are crossed, and light that passes through the first filter becomes polarized and is stopped by the second filter. If a short electric pulse is passed through the coil, the polarization plane of the light in the glass cylinder is rotated, and light can pass through the system. The electro-optical shutter, built in a similar way, consists of a cell with two electrodes that is filled with nitrobenzene and is placed between the two crossed polarization filters. The polarization plane inside the liquid is rotated by a short electrical pulse at the electrodes. Electro-optical shutters have been used to photograph the sequence of events during an explosion of an atomic bomb. Extremely fast motion can also be studied by high-speed cinematography. Conventional techniques, in which individual still photographs are taken in a fast sequence, allow a maximum rate of 500 frames per second. By keeping the film stationary and using a fast rotating mirror (up to 5000 revolutions per second) that moves the images in a sequential order over the film, rates of a million pictures per second can be attained. For extremely high rates, such as a billion pictures per second, classical optical methods are abandoned and cathode ray tubes are used to make the exposures. Historical DevelopmentThe term camera, as well as the apparatus itself, derives from camera obscura, which is Latin for dark room or dark chamber. The original camera obscura was a darkened room with a minute hole in one wall. Light entering the room through this hole projected an image from the outside on the opposite, darkened wall. Although the image formed this way was inverted and blurry, artists used this device, long before film was invented, to sketch by hand scenes projected by the camera. Over the course of three centuries, the camera obscura evolved into a handheld box, and the pinhole was fitted with an optical lens to sharpen the image. 18th CenturyThe photosensitivity of certain silver compounds, particularly silver nitrate and silver chloride, had been known for some time before British scientists Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry Davy began experiments late in the 18th century in the recording of photographic images. Using paper coated with silver chloride, they succeeded in producing images of paintings, silhouettes of leaves, and human profiles. These photographs were not permanent, however, because the entire surface of the paper blackened after exposure to light. 19th CenturyThe earliest photographs on record, known as heliographs, were made in 1827 by French physicist Joseph Nicphore Nipce. About 1831 French painter Louis Jacques Mand Daguerre made photographs on silver plates coated with a light-sensitive layer of silver iodide. After exposing the plate for several minutes, Daguerre used mercury vapors to develop a positive photographic image. These photographs were not permanent because the plates gradually darkened, obliterating the image. In the first permanent photographs made by Daguerre, the developed plate was coated with a strong solution of ordinary table salt. This fixing process, originated by British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot, rendered the unexposed silver-iodide particles insensitive to light and prevented total blackening of the plate. The Daguerre method produced an unreproducible image on the silver plate for each exposure made. While Daguerre perfected his process, Talbot developed a photographic method involving the use of a paper negative from which an unlimited number of prints could be made. Talbot had discovered that paper coated with silver iodide could be made more sensitive to light if dampened before exposure by a solution of silver nitrate and gallic acid, and that the solution also could be used in developing the paper after exposure. After development, the negative image was made permanent by immersion in sodium thiosulfate, or hypo. Talbots method, called the calotype process, required exposures of about 30 seconds to produce an adequate image on the negative. Both Daguerre and Talbot announced their processes in 1839. Within three years the exposure time in both processes had been reduced to several seconds. In the calotype process, the grain structure of the paper negatives appeared in the finished print. In 1847 French physicist Claude Flix Abel Nipce de Saint-Victor devised a method of using a glass-plate negative. The plate, which was coated with potassium bromide suspended in albumin, was prepared before exposure by immersion in a silver- nitrate solution. The glass-plate negatives provided excellent image definition but required long exposures. In 1851 British sculptor and photographer Frederick Scott Archer introduced wet glass plates using collodion, rather than albumin, as the coating material in which light- sensitive compounds were suspended. Because these negatives had to be exposed and developed while wet, photographers needed a darkroom close at hand in order to prepare the plates before exposure and to develop them immediately after exposure. Using wet collodion negatives and horse-drawn mobile darkrooms, photographers on the staff of American photographer Mathew B. Brady took thousands of photographs on battlefield sites during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Because use of the wet collodion process was limited largely to professional photography, various experimenters attempted to perfect a type of negative that could be exposed when dry and that would not require immediate development after exposure. Advances were made by British merchant Richard Kennett, who supplied dry-plate negatives to photographers as early as 1874. In 1878 British photographer Charles Bennett produced a dry plate coated with an emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide, which was similar to modern plates. While experiments were being performed to increase the efficiency of black-and- white photography, preliminary efforts were made to use the coated-plate emulsions to produce natural color images of photographic subjects. In 1861 the first successful color photograph was made by British physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who used an additive- color process. About 1883, American inventor George Eastman produced a film consisting of a long paper strip coated with a sensitive emulsion. In 1889 Eastman produced the first transparent, flexible film support, in the form of ribbons of cellulose nitrate. The invention of roll film marked the end of the early photographic era and the beginning of a period during which thousands of amateur photographers became interested in the new process. 20th CenturyIn the early 20th century, commercial photography grew rapidly, and improvements in black-and-white photography opened the field to individuals lacking the time and skill to master the earlier, more complicated processes. The first commercial color-film materials, coated glass plates called Autochromes Lumireafter the process developed by French inventors Auguste and Louis Lumirebecame available in 1907. During this period, color photographs were produced with the three-exposure camera. In the 1920s improvement of photomechanical processes used in printing created a great demand for photographs to illustrate text in newspapers and magazines. The demand for photographic illustrations with printed material established the new commercial fields of advertising and publicity photography. Technological advances, which simplified photographic materials and apparatus, encouraged the widespread adoption of photography as a hobby or avocation by great numbers of people. The 35-millimeter camera, which used small-sized film designed initially for motion pictures, was introduced in 1925 in Germany, and because of its compactness and economy, it became popular with both amateur and professional photographers. During this period, finely powdered magnesium was used by professional photographers as an artificial illuminant. Sprinkled in a trough and fired with a percussion cap, it produced a brilliant flash of light and a cloud of acrid smoke. In the 1930s the photographic flashbulb replaced magnesium powder as a light source.